A RETROSPECTION ON GANDHARA BUDDHIST ART (PAKISTAN -AFGHANISTAN), BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA
Rev. Dato’ (Sir) Dr. Sumana Siri, PG. DTh(Oxford),D.B.S.,B.A. (Hons),P h. D. (VN) D.Hom (Med.)(U.K.), N.M.D. (USA), D.H.M. (USA), FBIH (U.K.)
Chief Sangha Nayaka of the U.K. & Europe, Medical Consultant, Royal Philosopher, Dasha Bhasha Visharada, Glory of India, Defender of the State (Malaysia)
Buddhist Realist Vihara, 18, Cowper Ave, East Ham, London E6 1 BJ United Kingdom. Email: oxforddrsumana@gmail.com
Keywords:
Definition, Location, Advent of Buddhism, Political Turmoil, Evaluation
Definition:
This is an exercise to retrospect the major discoveries made since 1953 up to the present time on Graeco-Roman Buddhist Art of the Gandhara region. This involves not just Pakistan – Afghanistan where the predominant Gandhara art prevails, but also its connection to Central Asia that encompasses ancient India, parts of Russia, China, Iran and up to the relevant parts beyond the Mediterranean sea.
From the eastern part of the Iranian plateau to the north west corner of the Indian subcontinent, now shared by Pakistan and Afghanistan and up north beyond the ancient Oxus extending to the Ganges basin and to the south east of Soviet Turkestan, lies Gandhara.
Its art, initially called ‘Graeco-Buddhist or Romano- Buddhist was subsequently standardised Pakistan and Afghanistan to “Graeco-Roman Buddhist Art” of Gandhara. Central Asia’s diversity is not found elsewhere. It was a flowering of a new art, homogeneous with versatility. It transformed to sites and conditions as Buddhism flourished with the power of Gandhara art.
Its Hellenistic art which encountered early Indian civilisation at its most sophisticated form as recorded by Xuan Zhang the Chinese monk who traversed the area and noted of the two disciples of the Buddha who enshrined the hairs of the Master in the first stupa in Balkh authenticated by the ‘Takht-i-Rustam’ and ‘Tapa -i- Rustam’ Buddhist monasteries.
The influence of the Balkh to Central Asian Buddhism is further glorified by the tooth relic stupa, a main centre, despite no easy access, monks, traders and ambassadors from Greece, India and China came and went over the Pamirs, the Tian Shan and the Tarim Basin of Chinese Turkestan.
Before the advent of Christ; ‘the Kashmiri Bridge’ paved the way to the transmission of the dispensation to Central Asia and China. It was not a mere pathway for traders but for aesthetics and practical Dharma as well. Afghanistan and Pakistan was in a strategic position for keeping communications with other directions e.g. The Silk Road linked either Tyre or Antioch (Margian) and Maracanda of Samarkand or Bactria that met at Kashgar which led to Dun-Huang and Loyang in Central China.
The fact that commerce was established between the Mediterranean and Bactria before Christ was proven by the coins of 600 B.C. to 400 B.C. in Kabul. Gandhara as a kingdom was situated in the north-western region of Pakistan, encompassing Peshawar (Purushapura) Valley and the Swat (Swasti) Valley or Udayana) extended to Jalalabad district of Afghanistan. Mention must be made that Gandhara boundaries varied throughout history. But Peshawar remains the heart of Gandhara. In fact the capital of Gandhara was shifted to 5 cities. The two prominent cities were Takshasila (Taxila) and Peshawar. The Epic of the Hindus: the (Maha Bharata) refers to these cities in relation to Lord Rama. Another speculation: a super-human tribe called Gandharva well versed in music art were original habitants of that particular place. Their influence in Indian Classical Music is well known. Gandhara was one of the sixteen ‘janapadas’ regions founded by Gandhara; son of Aruddha.
The Zend Avesta of the Zoroastrians considers Gandhara as a holy place because Zoroaster (6 cen. B.C.) lived there and preached for a very long time. It is also written in the Avesta, that Gandhara is the six most beautiful place on earth, created by Ahura Mazda (God).
In ancient India, it was a high seat of learning to which young Siddhartha (the Buddha) went to study. This fact is carved in the sculpture of Gandhara. A peculiar fact is that in the last Sutra of the Buddha (extended form) is recorded that one of his tooth relic out of the four prominent major teeth is deposited as a relic, in Gandhara!; viz,
Eka hi datha nidivehi pujita
Eka pana Gandhara pure mahiyati
Kalinga ranno vijite punekam
Ekam puna naga raja mahenti
– Maha Parinibbana Sutta
The Great Passing Away Sutta
According to Buddhist history, Emperor Asoka the great who built 84,000 shrines started his career as ‘the Governor of Gandhara’. His son Kunala was also sent as Viceroy to the same place. The Mauryan Rulers introduced religious tolerance of Buddhism alongside Zoroastrianism. This is self-evident in the domains of commerce, art and architecture which was demonstrated in the construction of stupas. So, the Maurya Empire ruled Gandhara for more than a century.
The most prominent phenomena was the Buddha placing his foot print in Gandhara ”yam tattha YONAKA-PURE-munino ca padam” as is found in the ‘Pali Book of the Prayers’ that Gandhara is one of the 4 places where he set his footprint, ‘the city of the Yavanas’ (a transliteration of Yavana; Ionian). So, it became ‘the Land hallowed by the Master!’
The founder of Tibetan Buddhism; Guru Padmasambhava is said to have been born in the ‘Dhanakosha lake’ area. (The Kadgyu Sect identifies the lake with the Andan). Persian history confirms that Cyrus the Great (558-530 B.C.) ruled Gandhara and Kamboja; both janapadas of the 16, up to the Indus River. So, the impact of Persian influence in Gandhara art.
In retrospect, it is incumbent to observe how far the impact of this school of art was felt during the first few centuries along the transcontinental routes beyond the Caspian Sea and its concourse with the Hellenised region of Euxinus with Khorezm, Altai and Mongolia.
The influence of creative hybrid art as in Gandhara, cannot be narrowed by geography as almost every art has been affected by foreign influences. e.g. There is no such thing as a consistent history of Indian art. Gandhara’s art was so extensive that Sanchi and Mathura Buddhist art has the imprint of Gandhara art, as some statues of Central Asia and China reflect the same. On the contrary, the value and the beauty that attracted lovers of Gandhara art and artefacts are found globally; viz, British, French, Canadian, Japanese, German, Dutch, Thai, Italian and American Museums.
It is contended that Alexader the Great’s expedition to the region and the powerful Kushan dynasty’s artistic inspiration from Buddhist aesthetics contributed to the progression of this refine art not only in the region but beyond. Alexander’s establishment of Greco Bactrian and the Indo-Greek kingdoms were the most influential factor to this development, though Hellenistic art was in a decadent state under the Sakas. A new awakening set in with the Parthian conquest. In this connection, the successors of Alexander and the Greek ambassadors who had diplomatic intercourse with the capital of Pataliputra (modern Patna) where Asoka the Great was the Emperor, Gandhara included .His contribution to Gandhara is too many, beyond the scope of our effort.
THE ADVENT AND THE DISSEMINATION OF BUDDHISM IN GANDHARA
One of the main duties of a monk to a devotee was to disseminate the message of Buddhist ethics as enjoined in the ‘ Discourse of social ethics; the Sigalovada Sutt a. It should also be noted that after enlightenment the first instruction the Buddha gave to his batch of sixty enlightened monks was,
“Oh brethren, go forth and teach the Dhamma which is beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the end wholistically, for the welfare and well-being of the masses and deities of all directions, let not, any two of you, go in the same direction.” (Mahavagga Pali)[1]
In keeping with these instructions, the monks of the years’ yonder travelled from jungle to village and from village to urban cities to carry ‘the Good Message’. Gandhara was privileged because even before this instruction, upon enlightenment under ‘the tree of enlightenment’ two merchants of Balkh (Bactria); Trapusa and Bahalika (Tapassu, Bahlluka,Pali) became the Buddha’s first lay disciples and were given eight pieces of hair from his head as a gift, when requested . These objects of veneration were taken by them to the Balkh and deposited in a stupa which holds the record of being the first pagoda of the Buddhist s. This is evidence that the worship of the relics of the Buddha was made, even when he was alive. That too, in Gandhara. The Chinese traveller monk Xuan Zhang (Journey to the West) have confirmed this record in his treatise.[2]
A report confirms that this area; ‘Naw- bahar’ (Nava Vihara, Pali Navbehar, Persian) turned out to become a highly respected place for pilgrims. It was later used by Zoroastrians as a ‘Fire Temple’. Abu Rayhan al- Biruni,(10th cen t. A.D.) a Persian scholar and writer mentions of the Buddhist frescoes at the stupa. A detailed account of this holy place which was considered like the Kaaba of Mecca, is given by Ibn al-Faqih of the same period and he mentions how the 8th cent. ‘ Umar ibn al- Kermani was killed and that even the Buddhist abbot of Naw-bahar had to be converted to Islam.
At the last month International Association of Buddhist Studies (IABS) Conference at the University of Toronto to which we were participants (21- 26 August 2017) it was mentioned by Dr. Mark Allan from the University of Sydney who spoke on Manuscripts of Senior Kharosthi of Gandhara that “a deity had requested Trapusa and Bahalika to offer alms to the enlightened Buddha and acquire merits.”[3]
Takht-i-Rustam and Tapa e Rustam are two known Buddhist monasteries close to the ancient city of Balkh in northern Afghanistan. The monks here lived in this large area of land, about 20 kilometers south of Balkh, above Chesme-ye-Safa (Clear Spring, not far from the Koh e Albruz (the top = hat); prominent centre of Buddhism in Central Asia. Balhika (Balkh) monks belonged to the Vaibhasika denomination, a sub-division of the Sarvastivadins. Among them, the Tokharian monk ‘Ghosaka’ was a famous compiler.
The earlier metioned ‘tooth relic’ of the Buddha was also housed gloroiusly in this area and became one of the main centres of Buddhist pilgrimage, along the Silk Road from China to Indi a. In recent times, 2009- 2010 in Kohistan at the district of Kapisa (Kingdom of Balhika) ancient relics were found by the Govt. of Pakistan.
As part of their duties, with royal patronage Buddhist monks continued the construction of monasteries and sacred monuments where Buddhism had been long established; Bactria, Gandhara, Sogdia, Kapisa, Punjab, Swat and at Alexandria of the Caucasus. By spreading the teachings to help the ending of suffering, they expected the people to live happily and finally achieve liberation.
TRANSFORMING THE BUDDHA INTO AN ICON
Visionary monks most likely ventured across Hindukush to Central Asia to disseminate the Dharma. The continuity of that practice is seen in latter day missionary monks of Kabul who went to Central Asia and translated Indian works into Chinese, e.g. Buddhayasas, Punyatrata and Dharmamitra. As this could be termed ‘expanding the Dharmakshetra’. The ‘Yuddhakshetra’ of the Kushanas defeated the Sakas in Afghanistan and north western India. According to Chinese texts, Kujula Kadphises (25 A.D.) favoured Buddhism as his propaganda denotes .So, prior to Emperor Kanishka’s ascend, in 62 A.D., it was not a surprise that Emperor Ming-ti of China purchased an image of the Buddha from Central Asia. In Gandhara, Buddhism flourished here because the Chinese were fond of Buddha statues and monuments which had many Jataka stories. Kanishka seems to be the most enlightened ruler as what Asoka did to India and Ceylon, he did similar development from Gandhara. Indian monks went forward to China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia and the Russian republics. Gandhara was the centre point of this movement, a natural centre of religious foundation with Bagram (Kapisa) as the formidable capital (1st cen. A.D.) The Kushan works of art there were either purely Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese or Indian, but the ‘cultural syncretism of Greco-Buddhist art was minimum .
It was here that a statuette of Alexander was found in Province Parwan. Oral history tells that though the Buddha was reluctant to allow making a statue of him (called himself, appatima; ‘not-an-idol’, Anguttara Nikaya) because, he was for the teaching, not for the teacher. (See King Udayana’s Buddha statue).[4] When the devout decided a Buddha image, they copied the features of Alexander the Great for he was very handsome!
So, the famous and globally identified image of the Buddha with Gandhara art was designed according to the Hellenistic school of art. Prior to that, it is a known fact that the Buddha was a shown by his footprint, or a parasol or the bodhi tree.
Last month, (August 21- 26 2017) at the international conference of the University of Toronto, Canada (International Association of Buddhist Studies) of which this presenter was a participating member, ‘Reassessing the Iconography of the Request of Brahma and Indra from Gandhara’ was a research presentation of Dr. Tianshu Zhu of the University of Macau.[5] He quoted the fact that Brahma and Indra; Sakka in popular Pali school of thought, “both stood by the sides of the foot print in veneration to the Blessed One, ” without any image of the Master. He also contended that the earliest Buddha image came from the Swat Valley of Gandhara, often large and independent of other figures ” e.g. in the Abhaya mudra (fearless position) .That too, so relevant in a world of turmoil in terms of contemporary society. Such Buddha statues are global icons that “reflect the expressions of serenity revealing a state of transcendence beyond mortal weakness and selfish craving.”[6]
A peculiar feature of some Gandhara Buddha statues was that the Buddha statues had a moustache not found in the Theravada schools but in some of the caves of Dun Huang and in the Central Asia.[7] The icon in Butkara depicts the ‘formal invitation’ by Brahma and Indra (Indra /Sakra is not mentioned in the Theravada texts, in this context. Iconic features following the Saka and Parthian style; non-Indian demonstrates the special concern to universalism and inclusivism.
In Gandhara repertoire, there are instances of localisation. At Saidu Sharif 1 stupa, (1st cent.) 60 over panels and 100 fragments illustrate the message of intelligent communication vs. revolution by art; the wonder that was Gandhara. The attributed term Gandhara-natha; the lord of Gandhara. Such was the language of symbolism that we are obliged to use our creative and consistant imaginations to reconstruct the widely flourishing arts that tells us of the appearances and pleasures of at least the more fashionable citizens.
MENDANDER AND DEMETRIUS
Greeks were not only inhabitants of Athens and Sparta, they were settled in Asia Minor and Hellenized Egypt (e.g. Alexandria in Egypt) Some were with the armies of Persia which invaded Greece (480 B.C.). Many Asiatic Greeks lived and had occupations in Iran. Also, the fact that the Indian region of Gandhara was invaded by the Persian emperor in 510 B.C. due of its importance to culture, politics and its legendary nature.
The post-Alexander Indo- Greek rulers contribution to the Buddhist Dispensation cannot be under estimated. The classic name of Menander (Menandrasa in Kharosthi, Milinda in Pali) naturally emerges first, to a student of history and archaeology. His formal name, Menander 1, the Saviour Basileos Sotoros Menandrou in Greek; the great patron of Buddhism in Gandhara was born in Bagram, Afghanistan and became emperor of his time .This is crystal clear as one reads the description of Menander’s coins now found in the British Museum; viz: ‘Of Saviour King Menander’; (as in the Kharoshti legend;) ‘Maharajasa tratadasa Menandrasa’
Menander’s domain, a large empire in the north west region with its capital in modern Sialkot (Sagala pura) (Sakala)[8] (160-135 B.C.) was founded by Menander himself. It stretched from the Kabul River Valley in the West towards the Ravi River in the East and from the Swat Valley in the north to Arachosia (the Helmand Province of Afghanistan) and to the south zone as far as Mathura. The multitude expeditions he made is observable by the phrase; ‘conquered more tribes than Alexander the Great’ written by the geographer, Strabo. He enjoyed economic prosperity as seen from the vast amount of Menander coins unearthed . He was constantly accompanied by a retinue of five hundred guards. Rhys David’s translation[9] enriches his real qualities, viz:
“Many were the arts and sciences he knew – holy tradition and secular law, the Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika philosophy, arithmetic, music, medicine, the four Vedas, Puranas…Itihasas, astronomy, magic,…art of war, poetry…the acknowledged superior of all the founds of the various schools of thought…as in wisdom so in strength of body … none equal to Milinda in all India.”[10]
After a very long debate with the logician monk; Nagasena, Emperor Milinda asked of him to accept him as a life time disciple of Buddhism. The text of the debate; ‘Milinda Panha’ (‘The Questions of King Milinda’) is in the form of catechism; questions by Milinda and answers by Nagasena .This treatise demonstrates Nagasena’s incisive logic with rationality at its best, to answer questions during the practice of the Middle Way. This is an extra- canonical text of later Theravada Buddhism, popular in Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand translated to a few languages. Though the text concludes his death as a monk who attained sainthood, Plutarch differs in his records …. that he died due to a military campaign and his remains were distributed to enshrine in monuments in memory of him. He was succeeded by his wife Agathokleia, as the regent as his son ‘Strato’ was unable to reign.
Whatever his name means in Greek, the name Milinda is said to have derived from the Sanskrit ‘Mleccha’ (Prakrit ‘Milaccha’, Pali, Milinda) and the meaning in Hindi literature is ‘descendant of the jungle’ (jungalee bhrashta). The Sinhala language too bears a similar meaning ‘person of the jungle’ (Mayura Sandeshaya)[11]. Mahavamsa,[12] the main history record book of ancient Sri Lanka, reports of the region where Menander hails from; Alexandria of the Causasus (‘Alasanda’) near Kabul City of the ‘Yonakas’. The attendance of a retinue of 30,000 monks for the grand opening ceremony of the ‘Ruwanwelimahaseya’ stupa headed by the Elder Grand monk; Dhamarakkkhita of Yonaka .
With the same name, Menander 2nd Dikaios, ‘The Just’, whose title is found on silver coins of his region with the meaning ‘Follower of the Dharma’; a committed Buddhist for which the Kharosthi reading is ‘Maharajasa dharmikasa Minamdrasa‘. The history of the region has been of cardinal importance due to trade, migration and invasions. At the same breath, one could infer that most relics of Indian material culture are religious.
LAND OF POLITICAL TURMOIL BEFORE & AFTER GANDHARA ART
Gandhara seems to be the most strategic empire as far as Central Asia was concerned. Surrounded by Iran, Russia, China, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgistan and Tajikistan and the main centres of India, Pakistan and Afghanistan of that era, it was obviously a natural target of political invasion and commercial competition.
From the 5th century B.C. up to the 2nd century B.C. Taxila (Takshashila) was an important seat of learning for the Hindus and the Buddhists. King Bimbisara of Magadha the Buddha’s follower had his counterpart Pushkarasakti in Gandhara and there was tension against Avanti and the Pandavs. Cyrus the Great (558- 530 B.C.) governed up to the Indus River. King Darius had to rebuilt Begram which was destroyed by Cyrus, the Great.
Alexander conquered Gandhara about 327 B.C. and brought the seeds of Hellenism to the heart of Asia, The Greeks with their art settled in the new cities and in the Macedonian satrapies. Selecus Nicator who succeeded Alexander (323 B.C.) traded Gandhara to Chandra Gupta Maurya who got rid of Ambhi; Alexander’s appointee. Chandra Gupta’s son Bindusara, grandson Asoka fertilised the soil and Asoka’s son Kunala was sent as Viceroy to Taxila. The Mauryan rule ended in this part of the region after one hundred and twenty years to the Sunga Dynasty. So, it is imminent that there have been power struggles for centuries.
Megasthenos the Greek ambassador to Pataliputra (modern Patna) the capital of Magadha (304 – 297) during Asoka’s period influenced the transmission of Achaemenid art to India, In fact, much of the ornaments were of that origin. The result, Buddhist art gained influence of Gandharan art. Even in A.D. 99, an Indian ambassador was despatched to Rome due to previous contacts in commerce. As Indian ivory was found in Pompei (Naples), Roman coins were found in Afghanistan and northern India. As Hackin states with a favourable political climate of the 1st cent., it produced circumstances favourable to art and Buddhism. Buddhist thought compel us to observe that struggles are perpetuated from time to time. e.g. After the conquest of Mahmud of Ghazni (1001 A,D.) the name Gandhara disappeared ! The administration was transferred to Lahore or Kabul.
In this region, contemporary to us, the interest of Russia and the US of building interests in this region soon after the 2nd World War is very clear. The rulers of Afghanistan have been made used of by the super powers of the world. The presence of Osama Bin Laden protracted more turmoil and the Buddhists lost the Buddhas of Bamiyan. The war with the Afghan lords brought in the UN troops and Nat o. The French troops in Kapisa reduced the ability of militants there, in order to attack Kabul. After more than sixty French troops were killed, the French respond was an eternal message; namely, “Long term presence of foreign forces in Afghanistan can only perpetuate the war cycle.”
EVALUATION: WESTERN INFLUENCE ON GANDHARA ART & THE HOW BUDDHIST ART INFLUENCED EUROPEAN ARTISTS AND MODERN ART
Alexandria was a momentous part of Gandhara art and architecture. The materials used in Gandhara were made of micaceous and mirstone (found in the West of the Indus) and standstone. At Sirkap, the female figures give the impression of the Greek Aphrodite style with an Indian twist. A statue of the Egyptian child deity and Harpocrates in bronze demonstrates the cultural affinity that expands the vision of the onlooker. So is the bust of Dionysus or Silenus in repousse silver.
Of the 33 stone made ornamental ‘toilet trays’, (we should prefer the term ‘ornamental washroom trays’) the Gandhara ones are natural, unlike the Taxila ones. It is important the we bear in mind that the art work are usually secula r. Hellenistic art which is also found in Alexadria, Egypt. Their trays differ from the Saka and Parthian typ e. So, Gandhara art is typical of erotic scenes which might disturb the uninitiated common devotee or the sensitive onlooker. ‘Arts for art’s sake’ is not the compromise of a non- moderate. Buddhism being a realism, gives space to the thoughtful to look at things as they are.
If we take the quote of Sir John Marshal “a standing male, hooded mantle worn by Greek countrymen, at his side a woman wrapped in a himmation or shawl, which her companion is pulling from her. Reminds me of (Pakeezah’s ‘Inhi logon ne le, lena dupatta mera’) the famous couplets of the Bollywoood song.
In the same treatise published for the Government of Pakistan, figure 16, is a wine drinking scene of a man and woman on a bench…. she offers him a cup of wine…. a man carrying a wineskine on his back…. companion…. raising a bowl to his lips. At the bottom, below two figures are lying drunk; typical Hellenistic art of the 1st cent. A.D. Such scenes remind the student of Greek Classics the “Wedding of Ariadne and Dionysus” a familiar subject in Graeco-Roman art. It will be a dilemma for a simple minded or unrealistic Buddhist to compromise with such art work, unless he is a moderate. But there is relief for the average onlooker who looks at the works of the Parthian and Saka female figures which are different from the later Gandhara period. In the Parthian there is a female rider, half-clad, bared back with prominent buttocks!
Marshall’s hypothesis on the Maha Maya statue (mother of the Buddha) in Sirkap as a derivative of a Greek Aphrodite type is justifiable, as she looks like an Indianised goddess who holds a lotus flower. Buddhist artists fascinate in showing the Master in the symbol of the lotus as the Sutras expound.
The printed goblets of Begram, statues, plaques in reliefs to represent gods and heroes of the Greek- Roman pantheon reminds us of the similar artefacts found in Eastern Georgia by Russian archaeologists.
In an evaluation of this type it is pertinent to remember the social backdrop of the region concerned. e. g. The comments of Megasthenos about the similarities of rebirth in both Buddhism and the philosophy of Pythagoras and the Christian theologian F r. Clement (150 – 218 A.D.) who mentions of the Buddhist monks (Boutta) in Alexandria; Egypt, are sensible factors to ponder on the universal character of not only the arts but also the value of tolerance and the willingness to share.
As new models were absorbed into the art of Gandhara that bloom during the Kushan empire, the Indian tradition was stronger, but the draping of the monastic robe came very close to the Roman Toga and the companion of the Buddha, Vajrapani was moulded in Brahmanic form.
Since Gandhara bas reliefs reflected multi-culturalism, by the time of the Gupta period, the monotonous and repetitions of fixed moulds: were reduced.
A note on the reverse order of Gandhara art being influenced by the West can be seen in contemporary European art to some extent, but unheard of in intellectual discourse. In fact, a few famous artist and their artwork have been remarkably influenced by Buddhist art and Buddhist thought. As in the converse order, so, in the reverse order. An evaluation of the dynamics of action and reaction and the law of interdependence in Buddhist philosophy tells us the mystery of actions and their inevitable and justifiable results, e.g., Vincent Van Gogh’s style seems unique but the fact remains that he was influenced by Japanese Buddhist art. It has been factually established that he owned almost all of Hiroshige’s prints and made copies of them .Reflecting on Van Gogh’s painting after his death, his close friend Paul Gauguin the famed artist wrote, “To die at this time is a great happiness for him,… and if he returns in another life he will harvest the fruits of his fine conduct….. according to the law of the Buddha.” Gaugin wrote on the Buddha: “Buddha a simple mortal, who neither conceived nor comprehended God, but who fully conceived and comprehended the intelligence of the human heart…. all people are able to become Buddhas.”
Claud Monet’s Japanese Buddhist influence is also extensive, particularly Hokusai’s prints which he said ‘something important’. Therefore, Japanese influence began to manifest in his painting s. The Japanese print that inspired him most was ‘ukiyo-e’ ‘pictures of a floating world’. So, he also created ‘a floating world. ‘ His using lilies is like the usage of lotus by the average Buddhist painter. Monet saw a meditative process as being part of the creative process and the paintings as meditations. The French P.M. Clemenceau who later called himself a Buddhist, said he was highly influenced by the Buddha. Paul Gauguin wrote that Van Gogh ”seems to have orientalised his eyes” On the other hand, Claude Monet was deeply absorbed in the notion of ‘impermanence ‘ That everything is impermanent and subject to change . This dynamism; the hidden truth was the success of this Impressionist artist.
The other two outstanding artists influenced by Buddhism were Marcel Duchamp and Kandinsky. Both lived in Munich, Germany.
[1] Mahavagga Pali, Vinaya Pitaka, ‘free translation’. Also quoted from Gandhara Manuscripts, e.g. recent ‘International Association of Buddhist Studies Conference. University of Toronto. 21-16th August, 2017, by Dr. Tim, ‘What is the Buddha’s Gandhara game? The same instructions given in the Mahayana Manuscript for Bodhisattva aspirants, as training vows, not found in the Theravada texts.
[2] According to another Gandhara Manuscript scribed in Senior Kharosthi, “A deity informs Trapusa and Bahalika to go and offer alms to Gautama in order to gain merits for themselves”.
[3] Watters, Thomas (1904-5) ‘On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India.’ London, Royal Asiatic Society, Reprint, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973.
[4] As per legend as the Buddha went to the heavens of the 33 gods, in his absence due to the vacuum, King Udayana had a sandalwood Buddha statue made which he presented to the Buddha upon his return. After some time, due to the event, a particular image known as the ‘Udayana Buddha’ became glorified. It’s copies are said to be in East Asia. It is worth comparing the Buddha statue at the British Imperial Museum of London, which is assumed to be painted by his disciple Punna when the Master reached forty. The London statue has been sculpted in stone.
[5] Dr.Tianshu Zhu, University of Macau, China. Recent paper in International Buddhist Studies Conference, University of Toronto, 21-26th August, 2017.
[6] Fisher, Robert E., University of California, Thames and Hudson Inc, 5000, Fifth Ave. New York 100, USA, 1993.
[7] The Buddha keeping a moustache in some Gandhara statues is natural, though the average Buddhist seldom comes across these artefacts. The moustache draws the balance of the refine face. See National Museum of India, New Delhi, The statues of Buddha from Miran (Central Asia) having the Indianised moustache. Also, in China (Dun Huang). Ref. to Puri, B.N. ‘Buddhism in Central Asia’, 5th reprint,2015, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India.
[8] Sialkot; (Sagala-pura, Sakala) the city Menander hails from. Today, it is one of modern Pakistan’s most prosperous industrail cities, exporting 10% of all Pakistani exports.
[9] Davids, T.W. Rhys, The Questions of King Milinda, London 1890.
[10] op cit.
[11] Gunawardhana, W.F. Wasala Mudali, Mayura Sandeshaya, 1937, Colombo, Ceylon:
“Milindun me kal wan Bolgoda gosin bala!”
[12] Mahavamsa, the main chronical of Sri Lanka in Pali, translated to English by Geiger, Wilhelm, 1937, Munich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Archaeological History of Iran (1935). (Schweich Lectures for 1934, pp.58- 75).
Cheetham, Eric (2004). The Great Way. The Buddhist Society, London.
Fisher, E. (1993). Buddhist Art and Architecture, E.Fisher , University of California, Thames and Hudson Inc, 5000, Fifth Ave. New York 100, USA.
Hackin, J (1954). Novellas recherches archeologiques a Begram. Paris, 1954
Hallade, Madeline (1968). The Gandhara Style: and the evolution of Buddhist Art, Thames and Hudson, London.
Ju-Hyung, Rhi (1991). Gandhara images of the “Sravasti Miracle”: An Iconographic reassessment. University of Berkely.
Marshall, Sir John. (1960). The Buddhist Art of Gandhara, Cambridge University Press.
Saha, Dr. Kshanika (1970). Buddhism and Buddhist Literature in Central Asia, Firma K.L. Mukhopadiyay, Calcutta.
Seminarium Kondakovianum (1933). V1, pp. 170-85.
Tarn, W.W., Litt.D.L.L.D (1938). The Greeks in Bactria & India. (Edinburgh) Cambridge Press, 1951, (1st ed. 1938).
Puri, B.N. (2015) Buddhism in Central Asia, B.N.Puri, 5th reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi.
Acknowledgements:
The Library of the Buddhist Society of London founded
ENDNOTES
[1] Mahavagga Pali, Vinaya Pitaka, ‘free translation’. Also quoted from Gandhara Manuscripts, e.g. recent ‘International Association of Buddhist Studies Conference. University of Toronto. 21-16th August, 2017, by Dr. Tim, ‘What is the Buddha’s Gandhara game? The same instructions given in the Mahayana Manuscript for Bodhisattva aspirants, as training vows, not found in the Theravada texts.
[1] According to another Gandhara Manuscript scribed in Senior Kharosthi, “A deity informs Trapusa and Bahalika to go and offer alms to Gautama in order to gain merits for themselves”.
[1] Watters, Thomas (1904-5) ‘On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India.’ London, Royal Asiatic Society, Reprint, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973.
[1] As per legend as the Buddha went to the heavens of the 33 gods, in his absence due to the vacuum, King Udayana had a sandalwood Buddha statue made which he presented to the Buddha upon his return. After some time, due to the event, a particular image known as the ‘Udayana Buddha’ became glorified. It’s copies are said to be in East Asia. It is worth comparing the Buddha statue at the British Imperial Museum of London, which is assumed to be painted by his disciple Punna when the Master reached forty. The London statue has been sculpted in stone.
[1] Dr.Tianshu Zhu, University of Macau, China. Recent paper in International Buddhist Studies Conference, University of Toronto, 21-26th August, 2017.
[1] Fisher, Robert E., University of California, Thames and Hudson Inc, 5000, Fifth Ave. New York 100, USA, 1993.
[1] The Buddha keeping a moustache in some Gandhara statues is natural, though the average Buddhist seldom comes across these artefacts. The moustache draws the balance of the refine face. See National Museum of India, New Delhi, The statues of Buddha from Miran (Central Asia) having the Indianised moustache. Also, in China (Dun Huang). Ref. to Puri, B.N. ‘Buddhism in Central Asia’, 5th reprint,2015, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India.
[1] Sialkot; (Sagala-pura, Sakala) the city Menander hails from. Today, it is one of modern Pakistan’s most prosperous industrail cities, exporting 10% of all Pakistani exports.
[1] Davids, T.W. Rhys, The Questions of King Milinda, London 1890.
[1] op cit.
[1] Gunawardhana, W.F. Wasala Mudali, Mayura Sandeshaya, 1937, Colombo, Ceylon:
“Milindun me kal wan Bolgoda gosin bala!”
[1] Mahavamsa, the main chronical of Sri Lanka in Pali, translated to English by Geiger, Wilhelm, 1937, Munich.
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Acknowledgements:
The Library of the Buddhist Society of London founded
Centro Dharma Saronno 
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